We're used to looking at the large visible effects that humans have on wildlife such as logging or draining wetlands. Subtle impacts [from recreation] may be just as consequential.

162

Behaviors such as those observed during our study provide a useful and sensitive tool for gauging the effects of recreational activities on wildlife. If bird behavior can be carefully quantified, then management strategies can be developed before these and other potentially harmful activities result in long-term negative consequences to bird populations.

142

Nestlings probably suffered the highest energetic costs from disturbances because of their dependence on adults for food.

127